Perception

The degree in which the potential of employees in organization is used depends to the large extent on managers' opinion on their subordinates. The chances that employees will be given opportunity to produce and deliver high results are related to the managers' ability to recognize the value of employees and to trust in their competences and honest intentions. The stereotypes about Polish managers suggest that their attitudes may be an obstacle to face the above challenge. Thus the purpose of the presented paper is to verify the said stereotypes. The survey conducted on 455 managers in Poland based on attitude and behavior scales of the Theory X-Y shows that Polish managers are closer to the Theory Y than X. Interestingly, there are no differences between males and females, MBA and none-MBA graduates, and the strongest differentiating factor is the age. The results suggest that several stereotypes and popular beliefs on Polish managers, male and female differences, and MBA programs should be reconsidered.

Seeing total darkness is a peculiar perceptual state: in it, the subject is visually aware of something while seeming to fail to be aware of anything. Recent treatments of the topic (Sorensen 2008, Soteriou 2000) leave this particular puzzle unsolved. Here, I attempt a solution. Following Dretske, I begin by suggesting that the perceptual report 'S sees (total) darkness' is ambiguous between two distinct kinds of perceptual states: epistemic and non-epistemic. This will lead to an examination of the metaphysics of what is supposed to be seen. I show, on the one hand, the difficulty of reducing the perception of total darkness to the perception of a particular instantiation of a property, and on the other, that it has important similarities with the perception of (non-particular) 'stuff'. I propose, finally, that the solution to the puzzle might involve postulating a novel ontological status for total darkness: that of a 'concrete universal'. Potential implications of interest for partic-ularism and for naïve realism are suggested.

How do humans and other animals face novel problems for which predefined solutions are not available? Human problem solving links to flexible reasoning and inference rather than to slow trial-and-error learning. It has received considerable attention since the early days of cognitive science, giving rise to well known cognitive architectures such as SOAR and ACT-R, but its computational and brain mechanisms remain incompletely known. Furthermore , it is still unclear whether problem solving is a " specialized " domain or module of cogni-tion, in the sense that it requires computations that are fundamentally different from those supporting perception and action systems. Here we advance a novel view of human problem solving as probabilistic inference with subgoaling. In this perspective, key insights from cognitive architectures are retained such as the importance of using subgoals to split problems into subproblems. However, here the underlying computations use probabilistic inference methods analogous to those that are increasingly popular in the study of perception and action systems. To test our model we focus on the widely used Tower of Hanoi (ToH) task, and show that our proposed method can reproduce characteristic idiosyncrasies of human problem solvers: their sensitivity to the " community structure " of the ToH and their difficulties in executing so-called " counterintuitive " movements. Our analysis reveals that subgoals have two key roles in probabilistic inference and problem solving. First, prior beliefs on (likely) useful subgoals carve the problem space and define an implicit metric for the problem at hand—a metric to which humans are sensitive. Second, subgoals are used as waypoints in the probabilistic problem solving inference and permit to find effective solutions that, when unavailable, lead to problem solving deficits. Our study thus suggests that a probabilistic inference scheme enhanced with subgoals provides a comprehensive framework to study problem solving and its deficits. How humans solve challenging problems such as the Tower of Hanoi (ToH) or related puzzles is still largely unknown. Here we advance a computational model that uses the

ABSTRACT Temporal coincidence is a crucial feature for audiovisual (AV) integration, and recent neurophysiological findings provide evidence for the role of oscillations in the temporal binding of information. Specifically, low-frequency oscillatory phase alignment between visual and auditory cortices has been proposed to support AV integration in time (Lakatos et al., 2008; Schroeder and Lakatos, 2009). Here we hypothesized that if phase coincidence was critical for perceiving synchrony between auditory and visual events, shifts in the phase should be commensurate with the subjective perception of AV events. To test this, participants underwent AV temporal recalibration (Fujisaki et al., 2004) while being recorded with magnetoencephalography (MEG). Temporal recalibration consisted in adapting subjects to desynchronized AV events in order to induce perceptual shifts of AV temporal order. Each recalibration period was followed by an assessment of participant’s temporal order threshold. Stimuli during recalibration were presented at an average rate of 1 Hz leading to a prominent tagging in both auditory and visual cortices. Analyses were carried out in source space (dSPM, cortically constrained source orientations) and restricted to sensory cortices. We show that the variability in perceived temporal order is captured by non-stationary 1 Hz entrainment: the preferential phase at this frequency was significantly shifted between the beginning and the end of the recalibration period in sensory cortices. Individuals’ perceived simultaneity could be accounted for by systematic shifts in the phase of auditory but not visual neural responses. All together, our results provide a novel physiological index for subjective simultaneity suggesting that auditory cortex recalibrates its timing to the visual spatial anchor.

Mental fatigability refers to the failure to sustain participation in tasks requiring mental effort. Older adults with vascular risk are at particular risk for experiencing mental fatigability. The present study (1) tested a new way of measuring objective mental fatigability by examining its association with perceived mental fatigability; and (2) identified associated psychological, physiological, and situational predictors. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 49 community-dwelling participants aged 75+ years with vascular risk. A 20-minute fatigability-manipulation task was used to induce mental fatigability and develop objective and perceived mental fatigability measures. Objective fatigability was calculated by the change of reaction time over the course of the task. Perceived fatigability was calculated by the change of fatigue self-reported before and after the task. A set of potential psychological, physiological, and situational predictors were measured. There was a significant increase in reaction time and self-reported fatigue to the fatigability manipulation task, indicating occurrence of objective and perceived mental fatigability. Reaction time and self-reported fatigue were moderately, but significantly correlated. Higher levels of executive control and having a history of more frequently engaging in mental activities were associated with lower objective mental fatigability. None of the examined factors were associated with perceived mental fatigability. Objective and perceived mental fatigability were sensitive to our fatigability-manipulation task. While these two measures were correlated, they were not associated with the same factors. These findings need to be validated in studies with a more heterogeneous sample and a greater variety of fatigability-manipulation tasks.

The purpose of this study is to: 1) find a  picture of the perception of junior  high  school  civics  education  teachers  in  implementing Curriculum  2013  in Bondowoso Regency, 2) determine the  obstacles and efforts of junior  high school civics  education  teachers  to  overcome  obstacles  in  the  implementation  of Curriculum 2013  in Bondowoso Regency. The study  uses quantitative descriptive method which is an analysis method of describing or depicting the collected data as it is  without making general conclusions. The population in this study is 156 civic education  teachers  in  Junior  High  School  at Bondowoso  regency.  While  the number of  samples in this study are 10 respondents. The sampling technique used in  this  study  is random  sampling  technique  which  is  based  on  the  geographical location and focused on the  teachers who have  implemented the 2013 Curriculum  as  the  sample.  The  data  analysis  technique  uses  a  percentage  model  while  the measurement uses a modified Likert scale. The data analysis results show: (1) the perception of junior high  school  civics education  teacher in Bondowoso  Regency in  implementing Curriculum  2013; (2)  the  obstacles  and  the  teachers’  efforts to overcome the obstacles in implementing Curriculum 2013.

Kutadgu Bilig, hem doğduğu coğrafya hem tarihî konumu itibarıyla birden çok alanda geçiĢ döneminin özelliklerini yansıtan bir edebî eserdir. Din, coğrafya ve kültürdeki bu geçiĢ, kelime ve kavramları da etkilemiĢ ve Kutadgu Bilig " e edebî misyonunun yanı sıra köprü görevi de yüklemiĢtir. Hem izafi hem ilahi boyutları olan yaratıcılık ve yaratma kavramları da bu geçiĢte yeni ontolojik boyutlar kazanan kavramlardandır. Buradan hareketle çalıĢmada 1070 tarihinde Yusuf Has Hacib tarafından yazılan Kutadgu Bilig adlı eserde yer alan yaratıcılık kavramı, yaratıcılığı çağrıĢtıran ifadelerle birlikte ele alınarak eserdeki yaratıcılık algısının boyutları tespit edilmiĢtir. Veriler, nitel araĢtırma yöntemlerinden olan doküman analizi vasıtasıyla toplanmıĢtır. ÇalıĢma sonucunda toplam 178 beyitte yaratıcılık algısı tespit edilmiĢtir. Bu algı boyutları; ilahi ve izafi boyutlarda incelenmiĢ, ilahi yaratıcılığın Ġslami kabuldeki " ibda " yı yansıtır biçimde, izafi yaratıcılığın ise yarına kalma ve yarına kalacak eserleri meydana getirme biçiminde ele alındığı görülmüĢtür. Abstract The reflections of creativity from religional perception to literary perception has been achieved via literary texts. Kutadgu Bilig, due to the Turkish-Islamic world and the transition period to be considered one of the most clearly reflects the 1 Dr., Gazi Üniversitesi Türkçe Eğitimi., [email protected] 2 Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi, Gazi Üniversitesi Türkçe Eğitimi. [email protected]

This research examines habitual entrepreneurship as undertaken by those currently creating a new firm and those who recently had. The suggestion is that habitual entrepreneurs have different motivations for firm creation, take different actions during the process, and have different expectations for outcomes, as compared to novices. Data drawn from a random sample of over 1100, nascent and new firms, in part, support this view. It was found that habitual entrepreneurs are motivated to grow their firm as large as possible, actively define market opportunities during firm gestation, and have circumspect expectations as to the difficulty of business survival.

L'evidenza in senso primario è la caratteristica dell'atto percettivo che coglie in maniera immediata un oggetto intenzionale, producendo così una convinzione di verità. Tale convinzione si può esprimere in una proposizione detta evidente o immediata. La conoscenza evidente è un fenomeno cognitivo naturale. Alcune cognizioni evidenti sono naturali, al punto che esserne privi può essere il sintomo di una situazione patologica. La maggior parte delle nostre conoscenze evidenti, comunque, è acquisita. L'articolo propone l'educazione della capacità cognitiva delle persone, orientata a rendere possibile una percezione facile delle cose ovvie. Self-evident knowledge is primarily the feature of perceptive cognition that immediately grasps an intentional object, generating in the knower the persuasion of knowing the truth. This persuasion can be expressed in a proposition, which is called obvious or self-evident. Self-evident knowledge is a natural cognitive phenomenon. Some self-evident cognitive acts are natural up to the point that their absence in somebody can be the symptom of a pathology. Most of our self-evident knowledge, however, is acquired. The paper proposes the education of the cognitive ability of persons addressed to enable to easily perceive what is obvious. SUMARIO. 1. Noción de evidencia. 2. El fenómeno natural de la evidencia perceptiva. 3. Algunas notas de la evidencia perceptiva. 4. Confianza natural en la evidencia. 5. Educar a la evidencia.

The early Chinese text Liezi 列子 claims that you have to modify your perceptive faculties in order to unify your full shen 神 (" spirit ") and become a zhi ren 至人– an " utmost human " , able to get in touch with the primordial cosmic forces, and endowed with special skills and properties. The idea that the proper adjustment of your perception leads to this state is deeply rooted within the Liezi's view on the evolution of the cosmic and social order. In fact, the work describes the gradual modification of the perceptive process in a way that it is possible to juxtapose it with the cosmogony expounded in its first chapter. The aim of this paper is thus to analyse these processes, clarify how they are related to each other and explore what it ultimately means to become an " utmost human ". In the end it becomes clear that only the complete obliteration of perception, including the xin 心 (" heart ") as its main actor, makes the " utmost human " able to become one with the primordial forces and gain their powers.

The primary aim was to examine the effect of an eight day residential treatment for nicotine dependence on perceived stress, partner support, decisional balance, and self-efficacy for stopping smoking. Whether these variables predicted six months post treatment abstinence following residential treatment was also examined. Participants included 170 adult cigarette smokers. Perceived stress, partner support, decisional balance, and self-efficacy for stopping smoking were assessed on the first and last day of treatment. In addition, six month continuous tobacco abstinence was evaluated. Residential treatment was found to produce significant (p < 0.001) treatment changes in all psychosocial factors except one aspect of decisional balance (i.e., cons of smoking). Psychosocial factors did not predict six month tobacco abstinence. Only age (p = 0.014) and history of mental illness (p = 0.012) were found to predict six month continuous abstinence following residential treatment. This study provides new information about how residential treatment impacts psychosocial factors considered to be important predictors of tobacco abstinence in outpatient settings.

Il proposito del presente articolo è quello di accompagnare il lettore nella sua immersione fisica e mentale nei saggi solari camusiani mantenendo la cifra dell’enigma come guida. La fenomenologia di Maurice Merleau-Ponty, contemporaneo di Camus, fungerà da sponda sicura durante
la nostra ‘navigazione’, tanto per le considerazioni generali sulla sincronia fra corpo, mente e mondo come per le riflessioni di ordine squisitamente letterario.
Relativamente all’esplorazione degli aspetti legati alla lettura, in questo scritto ci
concentreremo, in primo luogo, sull’ambivalenza costitutiva con cui il soggetto esperisce
il darsi e sottrarsi della realtà, in un movimento ondulatorio al quale anche il lettore
finisce con l’aderire ; in secondo luogo, sullo ‘spessore’ che fa da mediazione fra il soggetto
e le cose in un orizzonte di impersonalità e le conseguenze che questo implica a
livello di esperienza estetica ; infine, sulla rilevanza, per la lettura, della corporeità sensorialmente
ricca del significare letterario stesso. Concluderemo con un’osservazione
relativa al ruolo che Camus sembra riservare al lettore nell’avventura sensoriale tanto
reale come immaginaria.